Introduction
This is my portfolio for Pedagogical Grammar, a course that I took in the second semester of 2007. It was very useful, once I am a teacher and with this course I got a chance to develop my thoughts about teaching and approachings. I really liked some of the readings I did for it and the lesson plans that me and my group had to make. That`s what this portfolio is about. It is divided in four parts: Forum Participation, Tasks, Teaching Material, Texts and Conclusion.
Forum Participation
The discussions that I appreciated the most were the ones about about Lewis. The first five chapters I liked even more, because I agree with many of his concepts and ideas. I also learned a lot from him and I'm sure that my classes got better and I owe this to his texts. Besides all that, it was the first time that I thought about my classes in that sense, and it also helped a lot. And Deise's comments about the discussions were also very helpful and enlightened me a lot.
Tasks
I liked group three's third task, because it was very dynamic (I think that's one of the most important points of class, so that you can keep your students involved and concentrated in what you are talking. This way, they learn better and easier.). They had the excellent idea of showing a recipe in video, so the verbs were illustrated with the movements.
I also liked their fourth presentation, because usually news are not a very interesting way of working, but they made it very nice.
In my group's fourth presentation, Deise made the following comment:
"I would suggest that you prepare some questions about the excerpt and give them to the class before they listen to it. This will help them to have a focus. These questions should focus on meaning first and they will help learners to develop their listening skills"
That really helped me a lot and I started to pay attention to that. As a teacher, I tend to take listening parts for granted, and that's a mistake I should never do. I'm trying to fix that, and this comment made me notice that.
Teaching Material
Me and Christiane actually gave classes based on the one our group built for this course. I really liked this first task. We had the ideas and they got even more dynamic with the help of each one of the girls. I liked a lot the approach we used. Students got very excited about being in touh with comic strips - they also like to see that language goes beyond the classroom. And this way, they also had fun reading and discussing them. Teaching grammar after that was even more pleasant.
Texts I chose the following Ellis' text because I read it in the beginning of the course and I like dit a lot. It is very simple and has a brief discussion about many important points of teaching approach. It is very basic, but was very useful to me, because it made me start developing my thoughts about teaching. "Section A
The text discusses three general approaches to the teaching of a second/ foreign language and identifies the learning theories that underpin them. The three approaches are: the oral-situational approach; the notional-functional approach and; the task-based approach. Approaches are principles; they include the principles of something. Methodology is to teach. It can be qualitative or quantitative. It tells what you have to do step by step. Methodology puts the principles in practice. Technique is what you do in order to achieve some goal, and to achieve it you can use different ways. Section B 1) Explain what is corrective feedback. Section C Principle 1 Development of formulaic expressions and rule –based competence Instruction needs to ensure that learners focus predominantly on meaning Instruction needs to ensure that learners also focus on form Instructions need to be predominantly directed at developing implicit knowledge of the L2 while not neglecting explicit knowledge. There are two kinds of knowledge, namely implicit and explicit knowledge. The former is an unconscious process and becomes explicit when it is made explicit, that is, when its learners become cognizant of the phenomena to which it gives rise. Further, explicit knowledge is also understood as having metalanguage would suggest its description and the analysis the way this description is applied. Implicit knowledge implies the capacity of the efficient output of a subject’s input. Consequently, this type of knowledge is the one that should be the goal of instructional programmes. But, its development gives rise to some controversies, for skill-building theorists say that it arises out of explicit knowledge. Conversely, emergentist theorists see its improvement with focus on form. Consequently, it is noticeable that without practice there is no way of elaborating explicit knowledge. In a way, this is subjective, since learners would have to be as quick as those who are fluent in their native language to access its implicit and explicit knowledge. Although it is sure implicit and explicit knowledge must be brought about, it is not sure whether how this is to be done. Principle 5 Instruction needs to take into account learners ‘built syllabus’ Principle 6: Successful instructed language learning requires extensive L2 input. ----------x-------
To better understand the text, it is important to know the difference of use between approach, methodology and technique.
The Oral-Situational Approach
The oral-situational approach, which was developed by British applied linguists, is based on Behaviorist Theory. So, the idea of learning by stimuli and through repeated practice is defended. This approach was created as an alternative approach to the American audiolingual approach. However, there are some differences between them. Although both have a structured syllabus, the oral-situational gives emphasize not only to forms, but also to situational contexts for practicing the structures. This approach has its methodology built around present-practice produce (PPP) and it is also referred to as ‘communicative’, its later version.
The notional-Functional Approach
The notional-functional approach emphasizes the functional and social aspects of language. In a teaching of second language based on this approach the teacher creates the course using, a list of functions of language, as for example requesting, apologizing. Although the methodology used is typically based on PPP (present-practice-produce), I believe that this approach gives important attention to the social aspect of the pragmatic. For instance, in this approach the student learns to formulate chunks in contextualized situations.
The Task-Based Approach
Based Approach is different of Oral-Situational and Notional-functional approaches. In this pedagogic approach the content is specified holistically in terms of task. Tasks completion has priority and they need to be a mixed among listening, speaking, reading and writing.
The traditional approaches assume that learners need o be taught some language before they can communicate, but in the Pedagogic Based-Approach the students best learn a language through communicating, as in first language acquisition and naturalistic L2 acquisition. Moreover , it not focus teaching communication as an object, but to engage students in authentic communication in the classroom, based on a syllabus consisting of holistic tasks, deep-end approach and Interactional authenticity.
Corrective feedback is an important tool that teachers use in classroom. It refers to the correction made by the teacher when students commit mistakes; the teacher shows the incorrect answer to the pupils and gives them the correct answer. Some studies have verified that corrective feedback helps students to develop accuracy in the second language.
2) Explain noticing, noticing-the-gap, uptake and recasts in L2 acquisition.
In L2 acquisition, the term noticing refers to the consciousness that learners have about the second language structure and grammatical form. The term noticing-the-gap is used when the learners have awareness of mismatches between their language and the second language studied. Uptake is learner’s effective response to teacher correction of an error. And the term recasts refers to the teacher’s reformulations correcting the student’s mistakes.
3) Describe the research related to each of the conclusions found on page 21 on corrective feedback
Nystrom (1983) concluded that corrective feedback is ambiguous and inconsistent because some research has demonstrated that teachers correct more some kinds of mistakes than others. Besides, teachers, normally correct some students and not others, even for the same error; they also tend to correct the errors with different frequency and in different manners.
Another research has focused in the frequency with which specific corrective strategies are used in the classroom (e.g. Ellis, Basturkmen, E Loewen, 2001; Loewen, 2003; Lyster& Ranta, 1997; Panova & Ranta, 2002; Sheen, 2004). These descriptive studies show that teachers use more recasts for correct student’s mistakes than others strategies. Recasts vary on form and they draw attention to the learner’s errors (Nicholas, Lightbown, & Spada, 2001).
Besides, it was concluded by Ohta’s study that corrective feedback value not only to the student that had committed the mistake, but also to the others. According to Ohta’s notes, the students take advantage of corrective feedback even if they are not corrected, that is, when they are out of the spotlight.
Experimental studies have investigated recasts. They showed that recasts were more effective for target structures than ‘models’ and an interaction that include a recast is more effective than one without a recast. Also, some descriptive studies show that the level of uptake and repair is higher when teachers use more explicit strategies as forms of feedback, including explicit recasts.
The first principle mentioned by Ellis is focusing on the proficiency and “complete language curriculum” which may be obtained through formulaic expressions and rule-based competence. The first item has much to do with fluency whereas the second one is related to complexity and accuracy .The use of formulaic expressions is underlined through the fact that learners often use chunks, which are analyzed later on. Concerning rule-based competence, it has been widely applied on the teaching of pre-selected structures and it is concerned realistic acknowledgement and “rote-memorized “patterns. Furtherore, it is essentially considerable that in that repertoire the focus –on-form approach fits well. Also, attempting to this principle, to teach pre-fabricated patterns it is memorable the notional-functional approach.
Principle 2:
The term ‘focus on meaning’ has two different senses. The first one refers to the idea of semantic meaning and the second one relates to pragmatic meaning.
In the semantic meaning, the teacher and the students can treat language as an object and function as pedagogues and learners. In the pragmatic meaning, they need to view the second language as a tool for communicating and to function as communicators.
Instruction should ensure opportunities for learners to focus on both types of meaning; however, the pragmatic meaning is the most important to language learning.
Principle 3
As has been argued before, learners most also attend to form can in acquisition. Authors such as Schmidt have stated the learning process cannot take place without a conscious attention to form. This focus on form can refer to form as a whole or to specific forms. Further, has more to do with the relation to the function and the meaning of a given form. Regarding instruction on form, it can be seen that there can be grammar lessons, focused tasks, which require production in its performance, among others. However, this instruction may intend to promote what is called intensive and extensive focus. The former usually revolves around the practice of particular structures, whereas the latter causes the learners to pay heed to more than certain structures. The problem is that intensive instruction it time consuming, and extensive instruction is too comprehensive. No doubt both approaches need conciliation.
Principle 4
A naturalistic L2 acquisition has demonstrated that learners have natural order of acquisition of grammatical forms. Researchers such as Corder say that learners had their own plan of acquisition for learning grammar as implicit knowledge. Others, like Krachen, gave conversely said that grammar instruction had no influence in this development or learning process. In this case grammar instruction could contribute only to explicit knowledge. Because of this duality, some empirical study was conducted on that to look into this teaching of grammar. The aspects analyzed were the order of acquisition, the performance of the instructed and the success of instruction. This was analyzed from the naturalistic perspective, and it could be seen that the order of instruction was the same for instructed and naturalistic learners. However, although the former had higher levels of competence in grammar, it could be seen that instruction did not guarantee that learners acquired the rules. This being the case, what needed to be done was to find a way to teach grammar in a way that would be as close to natural acquisition as possible. Among others ways, it was noticed that teaching grammar is best done by teaching how to use it, going to specific features and focusing the instruction on explicit knowledge; it seems that implicit knowledge presents some restraints during the process.
It is not easy to learn a language. To learn well a L1 or L2 the children or the students need to receive an input with quality and quantity. They have also to externalize what they learn, so input and output are very important. How can teachers help their students with the input? They have to:
1. Use the L2 inside the classroom, as much as it is possible.
2. Provide students a language exposition also outside the classroom.
If students receive input only inside the classroom and from the book, they will not acquire a good level of L2 proficiency.
Principle 7: Successful instructed language learning also requires opportunities for output.
Output helps in second language acquisition and the contributions that it provides are:
1. the productions of the learnes create better feedback and attend to the ‘input’
2.learnes pay attention to grammar.
3.learnes test their hypotheses about grammar through the feedback.
4.existing knowledge could be automatise.
5.opportunities to develop discourse skills and ‘personal voice’.
Tasks are incorporated into a language programme, because they create opportunities for output and pushed output. The latter is when the learners is stretched to express messages clearly. Controlled also exercises result in output. when learners iniciate interacions in the classroom and find their own words they extended talk of classroom context.
Principle 8: The opportunity to interact in the L2 is central to developing L2 proficiency.
In principle 8, the author argues about the importance of interaction to the L2 acquisition and to the L2 proficiency. According to sociocultural theory of mind, interaction helps learners to construct new forms and perform new functions. Thus, Johnson (1995) identifies four keys requirements for an acquisition-rich classroom: Creating context for language use, providing opportunities for learners to use the language to express their own personal meanings, helping students to participate in activities that are beyond their current level of proficiency, and offering a full range of contexts. However, creating the right type of interaction until constitutes a great challenge for teachers
Principle 9: Instruction Needs To Take Account Of Individual Differences In Learners.
There is considerable variety in the rate of learning and in the ultimate level of achievement. Learning depends on the teacher and on the student. It provides a more successful process when:
1.The instruction is matched to student’s particular aptitude for learning.
2.The students are motivated.
Successful language learning requires a flexible approach to learning in order to adapt classes to the different types of students.
Dorney (2001) makes the obvious pint that “the best motivational intervention is simply to improve the quality of our teaching”. Teacher need to accept that is their own responsibility to ensure that their students are motivated and stay motivated.
Principle 10: In assessing learners’ L2 proficiency it is important to examine free as well as controlled production.
Morris and Ortega's (2000) meta-analyses of studies, in their searches, prove that the extent of instruction depends of the way which it is measured, based in three ways: Metalinguistic judgment, selected response, constrained constructed response and Free constructed response. The effect in learners is greatest when selected responses and constrained constructed response are used. Beside this, the success of constructed responses depends directly of the means of tasks. We can find three ways to deal with it: Direct assessment of task outcomes, Discourse analytic measures and external ratings.
Principle 6: Successful instructed language learning requires extensive L2 input[\B]
According to both Ellis and Wells (1980), The variation of speed in children's L1 acquisition is due to the amount, as well as the quality of the input they are exposed to, the same being true for L2 acquisition. Krashen (1981, 1994) also adds that the input must be made “comprehensible in order to be effective. Nevertheless, researches also consider that the learner's output also plays an unquestionable role in the apprenticeship of a language.
But there are more factors involved in the learning process. Even regarding a immersion kind of environment, teachers may assure that the students are receiving extensive outside classroom input in order for the acquisition to be effective. The former can be achieved by both maximizing the use of L2 inside classroom (using it not only as the object of study, but as the medium also) and by creating programs and opportunities for the students to have access to L2 contexts outside classroom time. Both strategies are considered valuable ways of leading students to achieve higher levels of L2 proficiency, together with the ideas presented in the first paragraph.
[B]Principle 7: Successful instructed language learning also requires opportunities for output[\B]
In this principle, Ellis starts saying that some theorists, e. g. Krashen, believe that comprehensible input is the unique feature that allows language acquisition to the students. However, the more recent researches “acknowledge that learner output also plays a part.” (Ellis, 39)
In fact, the output is one of the main reasons for including tasks into a language programme. The controlled type exercises do not offer to the students the opportunity to express themselves in long term periods, which the theorists believe to be necessary for interlanguage development. One of the best ways to achieve extended talk in classroom would be through perform of oral and written tasks.
[B]Principle 8: The opportunity to interact in the L2 is central to developing L2 proficiency[\B]
Although it may not be viewed as strictly necessary, social interaction is considered to be of primary importance for L2 acquisition by both computational and sociocultural theories. Interaction serves not only as practice for already known linguistic resources, but also as a way to create new resources. It allows learners to negotiate meaning, providing corrective feedback and pushing them to modify their output.
The following characteristics are important for interaction to foster acquisition:
1. Create situations that give students an actual reason to use the language.
2. Let learners express their own personal meanings.
3. Push students to participate in activities that are beyond their current level.
4. Provide a wide diversity of contexts to work with.
These characteristics are more likely to appear when activities are less rigid, both in how the subjects are ordered and how the students are supposed to behave. Although it can be difficult to strike such a balance, it is important for the teacher to give as much control over the interaction as possible to the students, without allowing the class to become chaotic.
[B]Principle 9: Instruction needs to take account of individual differences in learners[\B]
Learning a L2 involves many aspects and it’s not the same for every learner. Then, it has to regard students’ individual needs as well as their motivation.
Adopting a flexible teaching approach would help teachers lead with heterogeneity of a classroom. Teacher could also guide students to know their learning styles so that they can have an easy access to alternative ways of learning. Students must be aware of the existence of experiential and analytical approaches to learn and that learning depends on both approaches. However the former approach is preferred in schools rather than the latter.
The author cites Dornyei’s suggestion to keep motivation in class, which is to improve the quality of the classes. Also, Wlodkowski’s (1986) checklist is mentioned by Dornyei (2001). Some of the items were: explain things simply and teach at a pace that is not too fast and not too slow. Ellis continued discussing that the students’ intrinsic motivation is the teacher’s responsibility though little can be done on students’ extrinsic motivation.
[B]Principle 10: In assessing learners’ L2 proficiency it is important to examine free as well as controlled production[\B]
In this principle, Ellis states that measurement of the production is essential to determine the efficacy of the instruction. For this, the author proposes the four types of measurement distinguished by Norris and Ortega (2000), (1) Metalinguistic judgement, (2) Selected response, (3) Constrained constructed response, and (4) Free constructed response.
While (2) and (3) shows the greater “magnitude of effect”, (4) corresponds to the best way to measure the learners’ L2 proficiency. (1), by its turn, remains as a promise."
Conclusion
This portfolio was very nice to be done. It made me review everything that I made and read throughout the semester.It also made me reflect about how much I learned from the course and what points did I improve because of it. I think that, now, I have a much better communicative approach and I learned that classes should be even more dynamic than I thought before. Besides that, the activities and texts made me see more clearly important aspects of a class that I haven't thought before - like when should grammar be explained? After or before a certain activity?
The most important change that I made after this course was that now I make my students deduce rules, instead of just explaining them. This was a method that I thought about while reading and reflecting about the texts. And now that the course is over and that this portfolio made me do an overview of everything, I can see the teacher that I've become. I can also see better other aspects that I need to change, because now I think of teaching in a different way.